ACRYLICS

ACRYLICS

Acrylic Paint is made by mixing pigment with a synthetic resin.

It can be thinned with water but dries to become water insoluble.

Acrylics are applied to many surfaces, such as paper and acrylic-primed board and canvas.

A variety of brushes, painting knives, rollers, air-brushes, plasic scrapers, and other tools are used in acrylic painting.

The versatility of acrylics makes them suitable for a wide range of techniques. They can be used opaquely or-by adding water - in a transparent, watercolour style.

Acrylic mediums can be added to the paint to adjust its consistency for special effects such as glazing and impasto (ridges of paint applied in thick strokes) or to make it more matt or glossy.

Acrylics are quick-drying, which allows layers of paint to be applied on top of each other almost immediately.

ELECTRIC AND HIGH SPEED TRAINS

ELECTRIC AND HIGH SPEED TRAINS

The First Electric Locomotive ran in1879 in Berlin, Germany.

In Europe, electric trains developed as a more efficient alternative to the steam locomotive and diesel -electric power.

Like diesels, electric trains employ electric motors to drive the wheels but, unlike diesels, the electricity is generated externally at a power station.

Electric current is picked up either from a catenary (overhead cable) via a pantograph, or from a third rail.

Since it does not carry its own power-generating equipment, an electric locomotive has a better power-to-weight ratio and greater acceleration than its diesel-electric equivalent.

This makes electric trains suitable for urban routes with many stops. They are also faster, quieter, and less polluting.

The latest electric French TGV (Train a Grande Vitesse) reaches 300 kph (186 mph); other trains, like the London to Paris and Brussels"Eurostar", can run at several voltages and operate between different countries.

Simpler electric trains perform special duties- the "People Mover" at Gatwick Airport in Britain runs between terminals.

PLANT VARIETY

PLANT VARIETY

There are more than 300,000 species of plants.

They show a wide diversity of forms and life-styles, ranging, for example, from delicate liverworts, adapted for life in a damp habitat, to cacti, capable of surviving in the desert and from herbaceous plants, such as corn, which completes its life-cycle in one year, to the giant redwood tree, which can live for thousands of years.

This diversity reflects the adaptations of plants to survive in a wide range of habitats.

This is seen most clearly in the flowerign plants (phylum angiospermophyta), which are the most numerous, with over 250,000 species, and the most widespread, being found from the tropics to the poles.

Despite their diversity, plants share certain characteristics; typically, plants are green and make their food by photosynthesis; and most plants live in or on a substrate, such as soil and do not actively move.

Algae(kingdom Protista) and fungi (kingdom Fungi) have some plant-like characteristics and are often studied alongside plants, although they are not true plants.

The Milky Way

The Milky Way

The Milky ways is the name given to the Faint Band of Light that stretches across the night sky.

This light comes from stars and nebulae in our galaxy, known as the Milky way Galaxy or simply as " the Galaxy".

The Galaxy is shaped like a spiral, with a dense central bulge that is encircled by four arms spiralling outwards and surrounded by a less dense halo. We cannot see the spiral shape because the Solar System is in one of the spiral arms, the Orion Arm (also called the Local Arm).

From our position, the centre of the Galaxy is completely obscured by dust clouds; as a result, optical maps give only a limited view of the Galaxy. However, a more complete picture can be obtained by studying radio, infra-red, and other radiation.

The Central bulge of the Galaxy is a relatively small, dense sphere that contains mainly older red and yellow stars. The halo is a less dense region in which the oldest stars are situated; some of these stars may be old as the Galaxy itself (possibly 15 billion years). The spiral arms contain mainly hot, young, blue stars, as well as nebulae (clouds of dust and gas inside which stars are born).

The Galaxy is vast, about 100,000 light years across ( a light year is about 9,460 billion kilometres); in comparison, the solar system seems small, at about 12 light hours across (about 13 billion kilometres).

The entire Galaxy is rotating in space, although the inner stars travel faster than those further out.

The Sun, which is about two-thirds out from the centre, completes one lap of the Galaxy about every 220 million years.

ARECHES AND VAULTS

ARECHES AND VAULTS

Arches are curved structures used to bridge spans and to support the weight of upper parts of buildings, such as domes, as in St. Paul's Cathedral and the antique temple.

The Voussoirs that form an arch support each other and convert downwards force of the weight of the building into an outward force.

This Outward force is in turn transferred to buttresses, piers, main types of Vault.

A barrel vault is a single vault, semicircular in cross- section; a groin vault consists of two barrel vaults intersecting at right-angles; a rib vault is a groin vault reinforced by ribs; and a fan vault is a rib vault in which the ribs radiate from the springing point( where the arch begins ) like a fan.

BOOKS

BOOKS

Through the process of BookBinding today is usaually mechanized, some books are still bound by Hand.

The pages of a book are printed on large sheets of paper called sections, or signatures.

When folded, sections usually make 8, 16, or 32 pages.

To assemble a hand-bound hardback book, the binder first places the folded sections in the correct order within the endpapers.

Next, he or she sews the sections together along the spine edge using strong thread and then pastes them with glue for extra strength.

After trimming the pages, the binder puts the book in a press and hammers the spine to round it.

The binder then glues one or more linings to the spine. The cover, or case, comes last.

To make this, teh bookbinder sticks cover boards to the endpapers, front and back and then covers them with cloth or leather.

CD - ROM

CD - ROM

A CD-ROM is a type of Compact Disc (CD) that can be used to produce images on a computer screen. Rom Stands for Read only Memory, which means that the digitally recorded data registered in pits on the surface of the disc is fixed and cannot be altered or replaced.

The CD is loaded into the CD-Rom player, where the data on the spinning disc is read by a laser.

CD-Roms are different from vinyl records in that they are not read along a spiral groove, from outer circumference to inner edge; instead each image or piece of information has a co-ordinate on the disc, which is located by the laser.

Information picked up by the laser is relayed to the computer, where it is translated into the text and images that appear on screen.

The information is relayed through a SCSI (Small Computer System Interface), which processes the electronic impulses between the disc drive and the computer system.

The User can move around the program by clicking on different parts of the screen with a mouse ( a hand-held tool with a clicking button whose movement on its pad is mimicked by an icon on the screen).

The image in the viewing area can be changed by clicking on the active scrolling button; this moves a rectangular panel down the scrolling figure in the navigational panel.

Clicking on active text will provide a new screen with more information, either in the form of text and diagrams, or as narrated animated sequences.

ICE HOCKEY

ICE HOCKEY

Ice Hockey is played by two teams of six players on an ice rink, with a goal net at each end.

The obect of this fast, and often dangerous, game is to hit a frozen rubber puck into the opposing team's net with a ice hockey stick.

The game begins when the referee drops the puck between the sticks of two players from opposing teams, who " face off".

The rink is divided into three areas: defending, neutral, and attacking zones.

Players may move with the puck and pass the puck to one another along the ice, but may not pass it more than two zones across the rink markings.

A goal is scored when the puck entirely crosses the goal-line between the posts and under the crossbar of the goal.

A team may field up to 20 players although only six players are allowed on the ice at one time; substitutions occur frequently.

Each game consists of three periods of 20 minutes, divided by breaks of 15 minutes.

RUGBY

RUGBY

Rugby is played with an Oval Ball which may be carried, thrown or kicked.

There are two codes of rugby.

Rugby Union is an amature game played by two teams of 15 players. They can score points in two ways; by placing the ball by hand over the opponents goal-line(a try, scoring four points) or by kicking it over the crossbar of the opponent's goal ( a conversion of a try scoring two points; a penalty kick, scoring three points; or a drop-kick, scoring three points).

Rugby League developed from the Union game but is played by 13 players at amature and professional levels.

In League games, a try scores four points; a conversion of a try scores two points' a drop goal scores three points, and a penalty kick scores two points.

Scrummages occur in both forms of the game when play stops following an infringement.

WORLD WAR I AIRCRAFT

WORLD WAR I AIRCRAFT

When World war I started in 1914, the main purpose of military aircraft was reconnaissance.

The British-bult BE 2, of which the BE 2B was a variant, was wellsuited to this duty; it was very stable in flight allowing the occupants to study the terrain, take photographs, and make notes.

The BE 2 was also one of the first aircraft to drop bombs.

One of the biggest problems for aircraft designers during the war was mounting machine-guns.

On aricraft that had front-mounted propellers, the field of fire was restricted by the propellers, the field of fire was restricted by the propeller and other parts of the aircraft.

The problem was solved in 1915 by the Dutchman Anthony Fokker, Who designed an interrupter gear that prevented a machine-gun from firing when a propeller blade passed in front of the barrel.

The German LVG CVI had a forward-firing gun to the right of the engine, as well as a rear-cockpit gun, and a bombing capability.

It was one of the most versatile aircraft of the war.

EFFECTS OF GLITTERING

EFFECTS OF GLITTERING

Glitter is a collection of small objects made up of plastic chunks or sheets, metal foils and synthetic chemicals like titanium dioxide with surface area in the range of about one square millimeter or less and painted with metallic or iridescent paints so as to reflect light. Often the paint has a colour and so the reflected light acquires the specific colour.

The tiny objects are often not perfectly planar but have randomly twistted bends so that each of the surfaces reflect light in the directions suitably conditioned for the reflection to occur.

Some stones are seen to glitter because they have tiny reflecting particles embedded below a transparent layer of the stone near the surface.

The transparent layer also can disperse the light into its component colours to fall on the reflecting surface in slightly different directions; this has the effect of glittering from the same spot in differing colours in different directions. In the artificial glitters also such effects are produced for the desirably rich coloured glittering.

As we have seen, glittering is observed as a result of reflection of light from oriented reflecting surfaces.

The differently coloured rays fall on the culet surfaces cut in very many different directions. The high refractive index causes total internal reflection, sending the rays back to emerge from the gem in several directions causing the observed glittering.

THE EXPANSION OF SAIL

THE EXPANSION OF SAIL

By this Century, Sailing ships had become fast and effective floating fortresses.

The navies of the north European powers competed with each other by building heavily-armed fighting ships called"men-of-war".

The distinctive round stern of the ship below, with its open gallery, balcony and elaborate wood carving is typical of the period.

Hulls around this time were semicircular in cross section, although many boat designers were soon to return to the V-shaped hulls used by the vikings.

Ships of the period carried more sail than ever before.

A labyrinth of rigging supported the masts and yards from which the profusion of square sails were set.

Ships grew higher as extra masts were fitted above the lower mast, and the bowsprit became longer to allow the ship to carry staysails, spritsails, and jibsails. Ships went into battle in single file, so that broadsides from the multiple decks of guns would have maximum effect.

Ships were classified by rates, the rating of a vessel depending on how many guns it had.

A First rate ship had more than 100guns.

The guns fired solid round shot, usually made of Iron.

MODERN BODY WORK

MODERN BODY WORK

The Body of a Modern Mass -Produced Car is built on the monocoque(single-shell) principle, in which the roof, side panels and floor are welded into a single integral unit.

This bodyshell protects and supports the car's internal parts.

Steel and glass are used to construct the bodyshell, creating a unit that is both light and strong.

Its lightness helps to conserve energy, while its strength protects the occupants.

Modern bodywork is designed with the aid of computers, which are used to predict factors such as aerodynamic efficiency and impact-resistance.

High technology is also employed on the production line, where robots are used to assemble, weld and paint the body.

COASTLINES

COASTLINES

Coastlines are among the most rapidly changing landscape features.

Some are eroded by waves, wind, and rain causing cliffs to be undercut and caves to be hollowed out of solid rock.

Others are build up by waves transporting sand and small rocks in a process known as longshore drift and by rivers depositing sediment in deltas. Additional influences include the activities of living organisms such as coral, crustal movements and sea level variations due to climatic changes.

Rising land or a drop in sea level creates an emergent coastline, with cliffs and beaches stranded above the new showline.

Sinking land or a rise in sea level produces a drowned coastline, typified by fjords (submerged glacial valleys) or submerged river valleys.

FREE BORDERS INC

FREE BORDERS INC.

Asians reach out to the world

The growth story of the emerging Asia would remain incomplete without embracing the phenomenon of outsourcing. Not only India and China has monopolised it, but"next-step destinations" like Phillippines, Malaysia, Vietnam and Singapore are becoming the global epicentres by renovating the traditional business developed countries.

Not only this, developed countries like France and Switzerland have an overwhelming number of Japanese residents. The new Asia truly seems to be on the wind-side of the market with its inherent competence and growing share in skilled manpower.

Asia has passed on the message to the world that by focusing business processes and service quality, one can optimise earnings and amplify growth. It's really red hot and going to be hotter in Asia. And detractors stay away.

CONSTANT CONSTANTS? SHEDDING LIGHT ON THE ANSWER

CONSTANT CONSTANTS? SHEDDING LIGHT ON THE ANSWER

Scientists are delvinga as far into the past as possible to establish whether the constants of nautre have changed at any time during the existence of the universe. For this they are analysing the light from the quasars.

Lightwaves from the quasars began their journey shortly afther evolution of the cosmos and have now reached the earth. while they were on their way, the universe expanded and in the process their wavelengths stretched and their colour shifted towards the red end of the spectrum. The extent of this 'redshift' indicates the time taken for the light to travel. On its journey, whenever the light passed through gas clouds, atoms in these clouds absorbed specific wavelengths of the light. this meant that electrons were catapulted to a higher orbit, the position of which depends on the fine structure constant alpha. If alpha had a different value earlier, other wavelenths would have been absorbed than those present in gas clouds today.

Such clouds are simulated in the laboratory in order to compare the light that passes through them with the light from the cosmic objects. Since absorption by atoms imprints a kind of barcode on the light, the comparison of 'old' barcodes with 'new' ones should establish whether the fundamental constant alpha has changed or not

AVERT A FUEL CRISIS

AVERT A FUEL CRISIS

We all groan when the government hikes the petrol prices - yet again - but few of us know how to hoard this combustible commodity.

One strategy: See what's holding you back, like a luggage rack.

Unless you use it regularly, ditch it, because they create aerodynamic drag.

Reason: Air flows over the roof, and when the cruising speed hits 60mph what you have up there is going to diminish mileage.

Another option: Open the trunk and remove everything you don't need on a daily basis or in an emergency (Hint:Keep the spare tire and jack).

The more your car has to haul, the more fuel it'll burn. That's also one reason some automobile experts recommend filling your tank just halfway.

Finally, use an energy conserving oil that has friction-reducing additives. This can cut fuel consumption by over 2 1/2 percent.

LIQUID THERMOMETERS

LIQUID THERMOMETERS

A rough idea of the temperature of an object can be made out with our sense of touch, but it is not an object can be made out with our sense of touch, but it is not an accurate method of measuring temperature. A thermometer is a device used to measure the temperature of substances.

The first thermometer was constructed by Galileo in 1593. It was an air thermometer based on the thermal expansion of air. Later Newton developed a liquid thermometer and suggested the need for fixed points. Gabriel Fahrenheit developed a mercury thermometer in1720 while Anders Celsius constructed a mercury-in-glass thermometer in1742.

A thermometer works on the principle that substances expand on heating and contract on cooling.

Mercury or alcohol is used as thermometric liquids. These liquids expand uniformly when they are heated. For measuring low temperature alcohol is used, as mercury freezes at -39oC.

The thermometer consists of a thick glass tube of uniform bore. At one end of the tube, is a small narrow bulb which contains mercury. The air from the glass tube is completely removed and the other end is sealed.

MEDIEVAL CHURCHES

MEDIEVAL CHURCHES

During the middle ages, large numbers of churches were built in Europe. European churches of this period typically have high vaults supported by massive piers and coloumns.

In the 10th Centuary, the Romanesquarestyle developed. Romanesaue architects adopted many Roman or early Christian architectural ideas, such as cross-shaped ground-plans-like that of Angouleme Cathedral (opposite) - and the basilican system of a nave with a central vessel and side aisies.

In the mid-12the Centuary, flying buttressses and pointed vaults appeared. These features late became widely used in Gothic architecture.

Bagneux Church has both styles: a Romansquare tower and a Gothic nave and choir.

CHEESE: THE SCENT OF A MAN

CHEESE: THE SCENT OF A MAN

Men's sweat smells distinctly different from that of women.

Firmenich, a swiss company based near Geneva, develops perfumes for cosmetic products among other things. One current project aims at improving deodorants.

To this end, researchers have investigated odorofic substances in the armpits of 24 male and 25 female test persons; all of them had either visited a sauna or had been cycling for a quarter of an hour. The sweat of both sexes initially had no odour. Yet when the substances were subjected to bacteria found in the armpit this changed rapidly; the sweat turned into a foul smelling mixture-in both the sexes.

Researchers found that the composition of this bacterical end product differed inmen and women: female sweat contains sulphur compounds which were converted into thiol, aromatic substances with an odour of onions. In the case of men, the same bacteria resulted in the gamey smell of cheese.

Exactly what occurs during this chemical process is not yet known. Neverthless, Christian Starkenmann, a bio-chemist from the research and development division of Firmenich, hopes to find deterrents that stop the process of conversion from a neutral smell to distinct whiffs of cheese and onion.

For some researchers, however, this gender split between cheese and onion seems too simplistic.

Tim Jacob, a Scientist from the University of Cardiff who researches odour, points out that, "what you eat, the bath products you use, the clothes you wear and your genetic make up- all these factors make a difference.

INVENTORS AND INVENTIONS

INVENTORS AND INVENTIONS

1. James Deivar ------Thermos Flask
2. Samuel Fox ------Modern Umbrella
3. Eliza Otis ------Lift
4. Baron Drais------ Bicycle
5. Gillette------ Safety Razor
6. J.L.Baird ------Television
7. Colt ------Revolver
8. Jansen ------Microscope
9. Torricelli ------Barometer
10. Michael Faraday ------Dynamo
11. Galileo------ Telescope
12. EmileBandot,John George Halseke ------Teleprinter
13. Macmillan ------Bicycle
14. Dr. Gattling ------Mahine -gun

SMS Princess

SMS Princess

Morgan Pozgar's thumbs whizz across the keypad so fast that it almost turns onlookers giddy. Her gaze is fixed on the words she is required to type into the mobile phone. The first reads: "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious"-a made-up word from the musical Mary Poppins. The text carries on in a Similar vein. "Even though the sound of it is something quite atrocious. If you say it loud enough you'll always sound precocious.

It would take most people quite a while just to read these lines out loud correctly, but Morgan types them into her Cellphone in 15 seconds flat- with no abbreviations, without a single mistake. And this is enough to secure the fast-fingered 13-year-old from Claysburg, Pennsylvania, a resounding win over her nearest opponent in a contest for the world's fastest sms-er. She gets quite enough practice: she apparently writes no fewer than 8,000 text messages a month.

BRAIN

BRAIN

The Brain is the major organ of the central nervous system and the control centre for all the body's voluntary and involuntary activities. It is also responsible for the complexities of thought, memory, emotion and language.

In adults, this complex organ is a mere 1.4kg (3 lb) in weight, containing over 10 thousand million nerve cells. Three distinct regions can easily be seen - the brainstem, the cerebellum, and the large cerebrum.

The brainstem controls vital body functions, such as breathing and digestion. The cerebellum's main functions are the maintenance of posture and the coordination of body movements.

The cerebrum, which consists of the right and left cerebral hemispheres joined by the corpus callosum, is the site of most conscious and intelligent activities.

GLACIERS

GLACIERS

A valley Glacier is a large mass of Ice that forms on Land and moves slowly downhill under its own weight. It is formed from snow that collects in cirques (mountain hollows also known as corries) and compresses into ice as more and more snow accumulates.

The Cirque is deepened by frost wedging and abrasion and aretes(sharp ridges) develop between adjacent cirques.

Eventually, so much ice builds up that the glacier begins to move downhill. As the glacier moves it collects moraine(debris), which may range in size from particles of dust to larges boulders. The rocks at the base of the glacier erode the glacial valley, giving it a U-Shaped cross-section.

Under the glacier, roches mountonnees(eroded outcrops of hard rock) and drumlins(rounded mounds of rock and clay) are lft behind on the valley floor. The glacier ends at a terminus(the snout), where the ice melts as fast as it arrives.

If the temperature increases, the ice melts faster than it arrives, and the glacier retreats. The retreating glacier leaves behind its moraine and also erratics(isolated single boulders).

Glacical streams from the melting glacier deposit eskers and kames (ridges and mounds of sand and gravel), but carry away the finer sediment to form a stratified outwash plain.

Lumps of ice carried on to this plain melt, creating holes called kettles.

ALTERNATIVE ENGINES

ALTERNATIVE ENGINES

The most common type of alternative engine is the diesel engine, which instead of igniting the compressed fuel/air mixture with a spark, uses compression alone, heating the mixture to the point where it explodes.

A diesel engine's fuel consumption is low in comparison with similarly sized piston engines, despite its heavier, reinforced moving parts and cylinder block.

Another type of engine is the rotary combustion, first successfully developed bu Felix Wankel in the 1950s. Its two trilobate(three sided) rotors revolve in housings shaped.

The four sequences of the four -stroke cycle, which occur consecutively in a piston engine, occur simultaneously in a rotary engine, producing power in a continuous stream.

RACING CARS

RACING CARS

Since Motoring began, racing cars have been a major focus of innovation in car design. Features that are now commonplace, such as disc brakes, turbochargers and even safety belts, were used first on competion cars.

Research into racing cars has contributed to a new understanding of engine performance, aerodynamics, and tyre adhesion, and has led to the development of ultra-light materials such as carbon-fibre for car bodies.

Like the 1937 Bugatti Type 57S, a modern williams Formula one car has a low, streamlined body and an open cockpit, but, unlike its forerunner, it also has a front wing that pushes the front wheels firmly on to the track, huge slick tyres for extra grip, and electrical sensors that continually relay information to the pits about the car's performance.

CRICKET

CRICKET

Cricket is a Ball Game played by two teams of eleven players on a pitch with two sets of three stumps(wickets). The bowler bowls the ball down the pitch to the batsman of the opposing team, who must defend the wicket in front of which he stands.

The object of the game is to score as many runs as possible. Runs can be scored individually by running the length of the playing strip, or by hitting a ball which lands outside the boundary("Six"), or which lands inside the boundary but bouncesw or rolls outside("Four"); the opposing team willbowl and field, attempting to dismiss the batsmen.

A batsman can be dismissed in one of several ways: by the bowler hitting the wicket with the ball("bowled"); by a fielder catching the ball hit by the batsman before it touches the ground("caught"); by the wicket keeper or another fielder breaking the wicket while the batsman is attempting a run and is therefore out of hig ground("stumped" or "run out"); by the batsman breaking the wicket with his own bat or body("hit wicket"); by a part of the batsman's body being hit by a ball that would otherwise have hit the wicket("leg before wicket"{"lbw"} ).

A match consists of one or two innings and each innings ends when the tenth batsman of the batting team is out, when a certain number of overs ( a series of six balls bowled) have been played, or when the captain of the batting team "declares" ending the innings voluntarily.

LAWNMOWER

LAWNMOWER

The shape of a Lawnmover - whether driven by electrical, petrol or human power - shave grass close to the ground. The Petrol-powered type shown here has a small engine that is electrically ignited by a battery and spark plug.

This engine rotates a horizontal blade at the base of the lawnmower that slices the grass against a fixed blade.

A grass bag at the back of the machine collects the cuttings. As the engine rotates the blades, it also turns the rear wheels, moving the lawnmower forwards.

Gears ensure that the horizontal blade spins faster than the wheels so that all of the grass is cut neatly befor the lawnmower moves on.

CAMERA

CAMERA

A camera is an instrument for recording images on photographic film. It consists of a light-tight box wigh a shutter, a lens containing a diaphragam, and a viewing system.

When the shutter is released, the film is exposed to light from the subject that is being photographed. Adjusting the shutter speed alters the time for which the film is exposed to light.

The diagram, by altering the aperture of the lens, controls the intensity of light entering the camera.

The total amount of light entering the camera is called the exposure. The lens focuses the light on to the film. When there is insufficient light to produce an adequate image, a flashgun may be used to give extra light.

ISLAMIC BUILDINGS

ISLAMIC BUILDINGS

The Islamic Religion was founded by the prophet Mohammed, who was born in Mecca (in present day Saudi Arabia) about 570 A.D.

In the following three centuries Islam spread from Arabia to North Africa and Spain as well as to India and much of the rest of Asia. The worldwide influence of Islam remains strong today.

Common characteristics of Islamic buildings include ogee arches and roofs, onion domes and walls decorated with carved stone, paintings, inlays or mosaics. The most important type of Islamic building is the mosque - the place of worship-which generally has a minaret (tower) from which the muezzin(official crier) calls Muslims to Prayer.

Most Mosques have a milhrab(decorative niche) that indicates the direction of Mecca. As figurative art is not allowed in Islams, buildings are ornamented with geometric and abrabesque motifs and inscriptions(frequently Koranic verses).

MUSICAL NOTATION

MUSICAL NOTATION

Musical Notation is any method by which sounds are written down so that they can be read and performed by others.

The present day conventional system of notation uses a five-line stave(staff) - divided by vertical lines into sections known as bars - on which notes, rests, clefs, key signatures, time signatures, accidentals and other symbols are written.

A Note indicates the duration of a sound and according to its position on the stave, its pitch. Notes can be arranged on the stage in order of pitch to form a scale. A Silence in the music is indicated by a rest. The clef, which is placed at the beginning of a stave, fixes the pitch. The key signature, which is placed after the clef, indicates the key. The time signature, placed after the key signature, shows the number of beats in a bar.

Accidentals are used to indicate the raising or lowering of the pitch of a Note.

COMPETITION MOTORCYCLES

COMPETITION MOTORCYCLES

There are many types of motorcycle sport and in each, a specialist machine has evolved to perform to specific requirements.

Races take place on roads or tracks or "off-road", in fields, dirt tracks, and even the desert. "Grand Prix" world championships in road-racing exist for 125cc, 250cc, and 500cc classes, as well as for sidecars. The latest racing sidecars have more in common with racing cars than motorcycles.

The rider and passenger operate within an all-enclosing, aerodynamic fairing. The Suzuki RGV500 shown here, like other Grand Prix machiners, carries and advertising, which promotes the manufacturer and helps to cover the cost of developing motorcycle technology.

In Speedway, which originated in the US in 1902, motorcycles operate without brakes or a gearbox. Off-road competition motorcycles have less emphasis on high power output.

In Motocross, for example, which is held on rough terrain, they must have high ground clearance, flexible long-travel suspension, and tyres with a chunky tread pattern, to allow them to grip in sand or mud.

THE CHANGING EARTH

The Earth Formed from a cloud of Dust and Gas drifting through space about 4600 million years ago. Dense Minerals sank to the Centre while lighter ones formed a thin rockey crust.However the first known life forms - bacteria and blue-green algae- did not appear until about 5400 million years ago and it was only about 700 million years ago that more complex plants and animals began to develop.

Since then, thousands of animal and plant species have evolved: some, such as the dinosaurs, survived for many millions years, while others died out quickly. The Earth itself is continually changing.

Although continents neared their present locations about 50 million years ago, they are still drifting slowly over the planet's surface and mountain ranges such as the Himalayas- which began to form 40 million years ago- are continually being built up and worn away. Climate is also subject to change: the Earth has undergone a series of ice ages interspersed with warmer periods (the most recent glacial period was at its height about 20000 years ago).

Definition of Invention

An invention is a new configuration, device, or process. Some inventions are based on pre-existing models or ideas and others are radical breakthroughs. Inventions can extend the boundaries of human knowledge or experience.

Innovations are Inventions that become common in usage, and may be a major breakthroughs, minor in their impact, or with an effect in between these two extremes.
An invention that is novel and not obvious to those who are skilled in the same field may be able to obtain the legal protection of a patent. There is also a cultural invention which is an innovative set of useful social behaviors adopted by people and passed on to others.

The process of invention

Invention is a highly creative process. “Discovery consists of seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody has thought.” Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, Nobel Prize 1937 .
Invention is an evolutionary act which leads to an outcome that is outside of the norm; norm meaning what is known, thus yielding, creation. -Jonathan O'Neill Barnes- Apr. 19, 2009.
"Make a better mousetrap, and the world will beat a path to your door." -Ralph Waldo Emerson.

An open curious mind enables one to see beyond what is known. Inventors think outside of the box. "Hell, there are no rules here — we're trying to accomplish something new." (Thomas A. Edison) Seeing a new possibility, a new connection or relationship can spark invention. Inventive thinking frequently involves combining elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Inventors skip over the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields. Ways of thinking, materials, processes or tools from one realm are used as nobody had ever imagined in a different realm. This is how Cubism, one of the most revolutionary innovations in art was invented. Taking ideas from primitive culture, Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque reinvented art in the civilized world.

Play can lead to invention. Childhood curiosity, experimentation and imagination can develop into a play instinct that is an inner need according to Carl Jung. Inventors feel the need to play with things that interest them, to explore, and this internal drive brings about novel creations. Inventing comes straight from the heart, it's a passion. “I never did a day's work in my life, it was all fun.” Thomas A. Edison. Inventing can also be an obsession. To invent is to see anew. “To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old questions from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real advance.” “Imagination is more important than knowledge.” Albert Einstein Inventors often envision a new idea, seeing it in their mind. New ideas can come when the conscious mind turns away from the subject or problem, when the focus is on something else, while relaxing or sleeping. A novel idea may come in a flash - Eureka! For example, after years of working to figure out the general theory of relativity, the solution came to Einstein suddenly in a dream “like a giant die making an indelible impress, a huge map of the universe outlined itself in one clear vision.”

Inventing also takes insight. It may begin with questions, doubt or a hunch. It may begin by recognizing that something unusual or accidental may be useful or that it opens a new avenue for exploration. For example, the odd metallic color of plastic made by accidentally adding a thousand times too much catalyst led scientists to explore its metal-like properties, inventing electrically conductive plastic and light emitting plastic - invention that won the Nobel Prize in 2000 and is innovating lighting, display screens, wallpaper and much more .

Inventing is often an exploratory process, full of risk, with an outcome that is uncertain or unknown. There are failures as well as successes. “If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research, would it?” Einstein Inspiration can start the process, but no matter how complete the initial idea, inventions typically have to be developed. Inventors believe in their ideas and they do not give up in the face of one or many failures. Their perseverance, confidence and passion is famous. “If I find 10,000 ways something won't work, I haven't failed. I am not discouraged, because every wrong attempt discarded is another step forward.” Edison.

Inventors want to satisfy a need, they try to solve a problem or make something better, asking what if or, wouldn't it be great if. Inventors may for example, try to improve something by making it more effective, healthier, faster, more efficient, easier to use, serve more purposes, longer lasting, cheaper, more ecologically friendly, or aesthetically different, e.g., lighter weight, more ergonomic, structurally different, with new light or color properties, etc. Or an entirely new invention may be created like the Internet, email, the telephone or electric light. Necessity may be the mother of invention, or invention may be the mother of necessity. Nobody needed a phonograph before Edision invented it, the need for it developed afterwards. Likewise, few ever imagined the telephone or the airplane prior to their invention, but many people cannot live without these inventions now.

The idea for an invention may be developed on paper or on a computer, by writing or drawing, by trial and error, by making models, by experimenting, by testing and/or by making the invention in its whole form. As the dialogue between Picasso and Braque brought about Cubism, collaboration has spawned many inventions. Brainstorming can spark new ideas. Collaborative creative processes are frequently used by designers, architects and scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents. Now it is easier than ever for people in different locations to collaborate. Many inventors keep records of their working process - notebooks, photos, etc., including Leonardo da Vinci, Thomas Jefferson and Albert Einstein. In the process of developing an invention, the initial idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, or it may even morph into something totally different. Working on one invention can lead to others too. There is only one country in the world that will grant patent rights for an invention that continues part of an invention in a previously filed patent, the United States.

The creation of an invention and its use can be effected by practical considerations. Some inventions are not created in the order that enables them to be most useful. For example, the parachute was invented before powered flight. There are inventions that are too expensive to produce and inventions that require scientific advancements that have not yet occurred. These barriers can erode or disappear as the economic situation changes or as science develops. But history shows that turning an invention that is only an idea into reality can take any amount of time, even centuries as demonstrated by inventions originally conceived by Leonardo da Vinci which are now in physical form and commonplace in our lives. Interestingly, some invention that exists as only an idea and has never been made in reality can obtain patent protection.

An invention can serve many purposes, these purposes might differ significantly and they may change over time. An invention or a further developed version of it may serve purposes never envisioned by its original inventor(s) or even by others living at the time of its original invention. As an example, consider all the kinds of plastic developed, their innumerable uses, and the tremendous growth this material invention is still undergoing today.